Adapted from the Greek of Andreas Theodorou, Απαντήσεις σε ερωτήματα συμβολικά (Answers to Questions in Comparative Theology), published by Apostoliki Diakonia of the Church of Greece. This English presentation has been edited for parish reading.
The Sources of the Orthodox Faith
What Is Divine Revelation?
When we speak here of revelation, we should not immediately think of the Book of Revelation, the prophetic book of the New Testament written by Saint John the Evangelist on Patmos, in which are recorded the things God revealed to him concerning the future course of the Church and, more generally, the history of the world.
Here, by revelation we mean everything that God has revealed to the world in the Person of His incarnate Son and Word, in order to lead human beings to the true knowledge of God, to reveal to them the truth and the real meaning of life, and to show them that their true happiness is found close to their Creator.
Divine revelation in the Person of Christ became a profound necessity, both on God’s part and on humanity’s part, because of the disorder introduced by the first human being, who freely turned away from his Creator, fell into the corruption of sin and the tyranny of the devil, and was in danger of being lost in the abyss of misery and irrationality, walking blindly in the darkness of idolatrous error.
God “had to” save His creature, while the creature needed to be delivered from the misery of this existential tragedy.
God Himself bridged this urgent need—the gulf that poured bitterness into the soul of fallen humanity—through His Incarnation.
By becoming man, He revealed to fallen humanity the seriousness of its separation from Him and what had been lost through disobedience, and He led humanity back toward the truth and joy of its existence.
What Are the Sources of Divine Revelation?
The sources of divine revelation are:
Holy Scripture and Holy Tradition.
Holy Scripture is the written Word of God.
It is divided into the Old Testament and the New Testament.
The Old Testament consists of forty-nine books and the New Testament of twenty-seven.
The books of Holy Scripture are divinely inspired; that is, the truth of God breathes through them.
Holy Scripture does not lie in any of its books.
It is infallible insofar as the Spirit of God, who breathes through its pages, is infallible.
It is not like ordinary human books, in which truth may be mixed with falsehood.
The authority of Holy Scripture is eternal and indestructible.
Its reading is necessary for salvation.
Regarding Holy Tradition, this will be discussed more fully below.
What Does It Mean That Holy Scripture Is Divinely Inspired?
In general, divine inspiration means that the sacred books were written under the inspiration of the Holy Spirit.
The sacred writers were instruments moved by the Spirit of God for the revelation of divine things.³
The ancient Montanists held the view that, at the moment of inspiration, the sacred writers fell into a state of ecstasy and became passive instruments without a will of their own in the hands of God.
This idea was rejected by the ancient theologians of the Church.
Neither is the theory correct that developed from the time of the Reformation according to which divine inspiration means the word-for-word inspiration of the divine truths.
If inspiration operated in that way, certain facts would be difficult to explain.
For example, the sacred writers each have their own personal style of presentation, and these styles are not all the same.
There are also differences in the way the same events are described.
Furthermore, if every individual word had been dictated directly by God, translations of Holy Scripture should not really be possible, since changing the original wording would amount to altering the sacred word.
Another theory holds that divine inspiration applies only to the dogmatic and moral teaching of Scripture—to those things directly concerning salvation—while in the remaining historical portions of Scripture there was only a general supervision by the Holy Spirit.
This theory is also extremely unsafe.
There is no reliable criterion by which one could separate what is truly divinely inspired from what is merely under divine supervision.
Such a theory always carries with it the danger of a rationalistic understanding of Holy Scripture.
It is better, therefore, to remain with the general truth that the Spirit of God is the One who speaks in the Holy Scriptures, and that there are no contradictions or errors in them.
Someone may ask:
Are there not contradictions in Holy Scripture?
There are certainly differences in presentation, but not true contradictions.
And if disagreements appear in certain places, they are not substantial but superficial. They may be due to mistakes in the copying of manuscripts, to translations, or to the limitations of our own human understanding.
Is Holy Scripture a Complete and Self-Sufficient Code of Divine Truth?
No, it is not.
Although Holy Scripture is the written Word of God, it does not contain within itself the entire fullness of revealed divine truth.
In the first place, this was never its purpose.
The whole dogmatic truth of the faith was not deliberately and systematically written down in the pages of Scripture.
The writings of Scripture arose in response to particular circumstances.
They were written to meet the preaching needs of the Apostles and other proclaimers of the Word of God, and to deal with various teaching and pastoral problems that arose in the earliest Christian communities.
Because of the distances involved, the preachers of the Gospel could not always deal with these matters personally and face to face.
Moreover, many truths of the faith—the number seven of the Mysteries, infant Baptism, the teaching concerning the saints, sacred icons and relics, and other matters—are not found explicitly in Holy Scripture.
In order to understand these things, we must turn to the Holy Tradition of the Church.
In addition, the teaching of Scripture is not always immediately transparent and clear.
At times it is expressed mysteriously or in a veiled way.
For this reason, in order to interpret Scripture correctly, we must turn to the interpretive Tradition of the Church.
None of this, however, diminishes in any way the authority or divine inspiration of Holy Scripture.
As the authentic expression of the Word of God, Holy Scripture never ceases to be the principal source of our faith and salvation.
What Is the Relationship Between the Old Testament and the New Testament?
The Old Testament records God’s revelation to humanity after the Fall, with Israel, the chosen people of God, at its center.
Within it the truth of God is preserved in the Law, in the preaching of the Prophets, and in the other forms of God’s instruction of His people.
This revelation was naturally adapted to the spiritual and moral condition of the people of that time, when the saving grace that would work perfectly in the world through the Incarnation of the Word of God had not yet appeared in its fullness.
It is therefore clear that the Old Testament, as a type and preliminary presentation of the truth, and as a stage preparing humanity for the full revelation in Jesus Christ, must always be studied and evaluated with the New Testament as its center and standard.
Seen in this way, the Old Testament not only contributes to the proper understanding of the New Testament, but also becomes a faithful image of God’s providential and educational purposes—a type and preliminary presentation of the eternal blessings to come.
What Does the Distinction Between Canonical and “Read” Books of Holy Scripture Mean?
The canonical books of Holy Scripture are those written under the supervision of the Holy Spirit.
They are divinely inspired books in which the saving Word of God has been recorded without error.
As already stated, these books constitute the first part of the sources of divine revelation, and reading them is necessary for the spiritual growth and salvation of the faithful.
These are the familiar forty-nine books of the Old Testament and twenty-seven books of the New Testament—a total of seventy-six books—which make up the official Canon of Holy Scripture.
The books called “read” books (anaginōskomena) are a group of books whose canonical status has been disputed.
They are ten:
1 Esdras,
Tobit,
Judith,
Wisdom of Solomon,
Wisdom of Sirach,
Baruch,
the Letter of Jeremiah,
and the three books of Maccabees.
The books commonly called anagignoskomena have a place in Orthodox worship and biblical tradition. Catholic and Protestant biblical canons differ in their treatment of these books; terminology and practice should be described with care.
Within the Orthodox Church, because of the absence of an authoritative conciliar determination, there has been some variation of opinion, with some accepting their canonical status and others not.
Saint Athanasius the Great describes them as read books and distinguishes them from the canonical books.
The local councils of Jerusalem, Iași, and Constantinople recognize their canonical status and even criticize Cyril Lucaris for not including them among the canonical books.
On the other hand, the Council of Constantinople of 1672 observes that these books are “good and virtuous.”
Critopoulos, in his Apology, says concerning them:
“Many moral teachings worthy of the highest praise are contained in them; but the Church of Christ never accepted them as canonical and authoritative, as many others testify, and especially Gregory the Theologian, Saint Amphilochius, and finally Saint John of Damascus.”⁴
The same variation and disagreement is also found among Orthodox theologians.
Holy Tradition
What Is the Holy Tradition of the Church?
As already stated, Holy Tradition is the second source of divine revelation, equal in dignity and authority to Holy Scripture.
Tradition is the living, spoken teaching of the Lord and the Apostles, preserved and continually present in the life and consciousness of the Church.
As is well known, the Lord, the greatest of the Prophets and Teachers, left nothing in writing to the Apostles and the Church.
Instead, He proclaimed orally the content of His divine revelation.
At first, the Apostles did the same thing, following the example of their Teacher and preaching the Word of God to the fullness of the Church.
As time passed, however, and as the pastoral needs connected with preaching increased, the Apostles began to record the Word of God in the writings that we now know as Holy Scripture.
The Church continued in the same manner afterward, and in this way the living Tradition of the Church gradually also took written form.
We can see this Tradition in the many written monuments that express the faith of the Church, such as:
the dogmatic definitions of the Ecumenical Councils;
the decisions of local councils that were confirmed by an Ecumenical Council;
the sacred Canons;
the writings of the Fathers;
the texts of divine worship;
the hymns of the Church;
the preaching of the divine Word;
and other expressions of the Church’s life.
The Apostle Paul emphasizes the necessity of this living Tradition alongside the written Word, exhorting the faithful:
“Therefore, brethren, stand firm and hold the traditions which you were taught, whether by word or by our epistle.”⁵
What Is the Criterion for Determining Whether Holy Tradition Is Genuine?
The criterion that distinguishes genuine Tradition from every false or counterfeit tradition is apostolicity.
For Tradition to be genuine and true, it must go back to the Apostolic age, to the period in which the saving truth of the Gospel appeared in its pure and uncorrupted form.
In other words, it must ultimately go back to the Apostles themselves.
Alongside apostolicity, another criterion of authenticity is unanimity—that is, what the fullness of the Church accepts and believes with one mind, and what the Holy Fathers and shepherds of the Church teach.
Saint Vincent of Lérins expresses this truth in his well-known phrase:
“Quod ubique, quod semper, quod ab omnibus creditum est”
—that is:
“What has been believed everywhere, always, and by all.”
It is clear that those who have separated themselves from the Body of the Church—heretics and schismatics—cannot be bearers of the Apostolic Tradition.
It hardly needs to be added that, according to the text, the genuine bearer of Apostolic Tradition is the Orthodox Church, which received and preserved without corruption the teaching of the Apostles as it is treasured in the monuments that express the life of the Church during the first eight Christian centuries.
Finally, by Apostolic Tradition we do not mean indiscriminately every tradition.
We mean that Tradition which concerns the dogmatic teaching and ethos of the Church, not matters of secondary importance.
What Do Other Christians Believe About Tradition?
The Orthodox Church receives Holy Scripture within Holy Tradition: the apostolic faith handed down in the Church’s worship, teaching, and life. Tradition is not permission to invent a new faith, but faithfulness to what has been received.
Catholic and Protestant traditions differ in how they describe the authority of Scripture, Tradition, and the Church. The Greek source addresses these differences in the language of historical theological controversy. Protestant communities also differ among themselves; many use creeds, confessions, and inherited patterns of worship even while giving Scripture a distinct or final authority.
For an Orthodox reader, the practical point is to read Scripture within the prayer and teaching of the Church, learning from the Fathers and seeking guidance rather than treating a private interpretation as self-sufficient.
Scripture, Tradition, and the Authority of the Church
What Is the Relationship Between the Sources of Divine Revelation and the Authority of the Church?
As stated above, the content of divine revelation has been treasured in its two sources:
Holy Scripture and Holy Tradition.
But in order for divine truth to fulfill its saving purpose, there must be some means through which it reaches human souls clear and unclouded, just as it first came from the mouth of the Lord and the Apostles.
This means must be authoritative and infallible.
It cannot simply be individual human beings, who may themselves be deceived and lead others into deception.
According to the Orthodox faith—and on this point, the text says, Roman Catholicism also agrees—this criterion is the Church.
In the Church, Christ is historically perpetuated, and the Spirit of God sustains and gives life to her, guiding her “into all truth.”⁶
Holy Scripture and Holy Tradition, when considered entirely by themselves, can appear unclear and undefined, without an external bond holding them together.
For this reason, Scripture cannot simply be interpreted independently without authentic ecclesiastical guidance, especially because some points of its teaching are not immediately clear.
It is precisely interpretation without such a criterion, according to the text, that has produced so many misinterpretations and heresies.
All heresies, without exception, appeal to Holy Scripture in support of their teachings.
Holy Tradition likewise requires an authentic criterion by which its genuineness can be judged, because human teachings and opinions cannot, by themselves, remain entirely untouched throughout the course of time and history.
The Church exercises this authentic discerning role in two ways.
First, through her hierarchs in the local Churches, who teach the saving truth.
Second, through the whole body of her bishops gathered in Ecumenical Councils, where divine truth is formally and solemnly expressed, particularly when it is threatened by error and false teaching.
This work of the Church is seen especially clearly in the authoritative formulation of the doctrine of consubstantiality at the Council of Nicaea in 325 and the doctrine of the two natures of Christ in one hypostasis at the Council of Chalcedon in 451.
These doctrines were already contained, naturally in a more condensed form, in Holy Scripture and Holy Tradition.
At an Ecumenical Council, the unanimity of the bishops is not necessarily mathematical unanimity, but moral unanimity.
When certain prominent hierarchs pronounce upon a dogmatic question and the others do not oppose them, this means that the teaching being expressed is authentic and infallible.
Such teaching is recorded in the doctrinal definitions of the Ecumenical Councils.
Other teaching that was not formally confirmed by Ecumenical Councils remains treasured in the various written monuments of Holy Tradition.
Under this understanding, the Church herself can be seen as Tradition in a wider sense, within which are contained both Holy Scripture and Holy Tradition in the narrower sense.
The Church surrounds and defines both through her authority and spiritual weight, protecting them from every harmful distortion and attack.
Only through the presence of ecclesiastical authority, according to the text, is the entire structure of Christianity preserved, the unity of the ecclesiastical Body safeguarded, and the high mission of Christianity fulfilled as a divine religion of redemption given through revelation.
What Do Protestants Believe About an Authoritative Ecclesiastical Criterion?
Protestant communities appeal to Scripture and, in differing ways, to confessional documents, church councils, theological scholarship, and the guidance of the Holy Spirit. Their understanding of ecclesial authority is not uniform.
The Orthodox Church receives the canon and interpretation of Scripture within the apostolic Tradition. The historical formation of the biblical canon is itself part of the Church’s life, rather than something established by an isolated reader.
How Do Protestants Understand the Interpretation of Scripture?
The principle that Scripture helps interpret Scripture is valuable: a passage should be read in its context and in relation to the whole biblical witness. Christian interpreters nevertheless differ, and careful reading requires attention to language, history, and the Church’s received faith.
The Orthodox approach joins serious study with prayer, worship, and the witness of the Fathers. It does not dispense with scholarship, nor does it treat every individual opinion as equally authoritative.
Reading and Translating the Bible
Are Christians Permitted to Read and Translate the Original Text of Holy Scripture?
Yes.
The text contrasts the Orthodox approach with what it describes as the historically narrow clerical spirit of the Latin Church, in whose history there were prohibitions both against the free reading of Scripture by the people and against translations of the official Latin text.
In the Orthodox Church, free theological inquiry is harmonized with a spirit of obedience to ecclesiastical authority.
The Orthodox reader is encouraged to study carefully within the living Tradition of the Church, combining freedom of inquiry with humility and responsibility.
Accordingly, the reading and translation of Holy Scripture are not forbidden but are permitted and encouraged in many ways.
It could hardly be otherwise.
As already stated, Scripture is the divinely inspired Word of God:
“All Scripture is given by inspiration of God.”¹
And the Lord Himself, the source of divine truth, recommends the searching of the Scriptures, in which spiritual life is found:
“Search the Scriptures, for in them you think you have eternal life.”²
The Orthodox believer has a primary duty to study Scripture with reverence and love, in order to learn divine truth, to be spiritually cultivated, and to prepare for eternal life.
The Church cannot forbid such an important work without contradicting her own spiritual nature and mission.
There is, however, one qualification.
Because the truths and meanings of Scripture are not always immediately clear, Scripture must be read within the traditional spirit of the Church, which is its faithful guardian and infallible interpreter.
The study of Scripture should therefore be carried out with the guidance of the Church—through interpretive commentaries, explanations, and other aids.
Careless or isolated interpretation can obscure the meaning of Scripture. Prayer, sound study, and pastoral guidance help readers approach it responsibly.
It is within this context that the statement in the Confession of Dositheus, according to which the Church does not consider every manner of reading Holy Scripture permissible, should be understood.⁸
May Holy Scripture Be Translated?
The same principles apply to the translation of Holy Scripture.
Regarding the Septuagint, this translation enjoys great authority within the Orthodox Church and is used liturgically.
It is regarded as a work of divine providence that helped prepare the nations to receive Christian truth.
This does not mean, however, that the Septuagint translation itself is divinely inspired, because the text argues that the idea of divine inspiration properly applying to a translation does not make sense.
As for other translations of Holy Scripture, the free spirit of the Eastern Church allows them without hesitation.
For this reason, the non-Greek-speaking Orthodox Churches each possess a translation of Scripture in their own national language.
Finally, regarding translations of Scripture into contemporary Greek, it hardly needs to be said that such translations must be made with reverence for the sacred character of the text.
All verbal eccentricities and vulgar expressions should be avoided, since they may harm the dignity of Scripture and weaken its saving influence.
What is needed are simple and living translations capable of speaking beneficially to the conscience of the fullness of the Church.
Source: Andreas Theodorou, Απαντήσεις σε ερωτήματα συμβολικά, Basic Dogmatic Teaching, vol. 5, 2nd edition (Athens: Apostoliki Diakonia, 2006), chapter I, “The Sources of Faith,” questions 1–12, pp. 11–27. Reference numbers below follow the Greek source; Scripture-reference errors have been corrected. Comparative passages are presented as historical theological discussion, not as a description of every contemporary Christian community.
References and Notes in the Original Text
1. 2 Timothy 3:16: “All Scripture is given by inspiration of God.”
2. John 5:39.
3. 2 Peter 1:21.
4. See Christos Androutsos, Dogmatics, Athens, 1907; 2nd ed. 1956, p. 6.
5. 2 Thessalonians 2:15.
6. John 16:13.
Note 7 — The Confession of Dositheus
The original text cites the Confession of Dositheus:
“We must believe Holy Scripture without hesitation, but not otherwise than as the Catholic Church has interpreted and handed it down. For every heretical corruption accepts Holy Scripture, but misinterprets it. Otherwise, if each person held a different opinion about it from day to day, the Catholic Church would not, by the grace of Christ, have remained the Church until today, possessing one mind concerning the faith and always believing in the same way and without wavering; rather, it would have been divided into countless parts and subjected to heresies.”
Note 8 — On the Reading of Scripture
The original text also quotes the Confession concerning the reading of Scripture:
“This does not mean that it should be read indiscriminately by everyone, but by those who, with proper study, enter into the depths of the Spirit and know the ways in which Holy Scripture is to be examined, taught, and read. As for those who are untrained and approach the things of Scripture carelessly, or only according to the letter, or in some other manner foreign to piety, the Catholic Church, having learned through experience the harm that results, instructs that such reading is not permissible.”
